ReviewPesticide exposures and respiratory health in general populations
Graphical abstract
Human exposures to pesticides can occur in the workplace, in the household and through the ambient environment. While the impact of occupational pesticide exposures on human respiratory health has well documented, how pesticide exposures are associated with human respiratory health in general populations are still unclear. In this article, we critically reviewed evidences demonstrating associations between non-occupational pesticide exposures and respiratory health in general populations.
Introduction
Human exposures to pesticides can occur in the workplace, in the household and through the ambient environment. According to the United States Environment Protection Agency (US EPA) Pesticide Program, approximately two billion pounds of pesticides is used every year in North American (US EPA, 2011), but only 1% reaches its target (Gavrilescu, 2005), suggesting the majority of pesticides will enter the environment without producing the intended benefit. Pesticide run-off from farm land and subsequent movement into water bodies further increases the spread of pesticides in the environment (Damalas and Eleftherohorinos, 2011, Davis et al., 1992) thereby increasing the likelihood of exposure to non-target organisms and the general public. Consumption of food containing pesticide residues is a recognized source of pesticide exposures in the general population (Schettgen et al., 2002, Ye et al., 2015b). It has been estimated that up to 50% of fruits, vegetables, and cereals grown in the European Union (EU) contain pesticide residues, and that one out of 20 food items in EU markets is known to exceed EU legal limits for pesticide residues (EU EC, 2005). Milk and vegetable oil products can also be contaminated with pesticides. A number of studies have suggested that although the concentrations did not exceed EU legal limits, the organochlorine pesticide 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDT) was detected in a high percentage of milk products in the Greek market (97.4%) (Tsakiris et al., 2015) and the organophosphate (OP) pesticides, including fenthion and dimethoate, were detected in more than 80% of olive oil products from the Greek market (Tsatsakis et al., 2003). In Canada, it has been estimated that 68.5% of fruits and vegetables contain detectable residues of one or more pesticides; although most of these pesticide were at low concentrations (< 1 mg/kg), there were still 3% of fruits and vegetables with pesticide levels higher than legal maximum residue limits (Ripley et al., 2000). The pesticide residues on food items mainly originate from farming and/or from pesticide applications during food storage and transport (Sanborn et al., 2002).
Occupational pesticide exposures, particularly in agricultural occupations (Ye et al., 2013), have been associated with human respiratory health problems, including self-reported coughing, wheezing, and airway inflammation (O'Malley, 1997, Sanborn et al., 2002), asthma (Beard et al., 2003, Deschamps et al., 1994, Hoppin et al., 2006, Hoppin et al., 2008, Hoppin et al., 2009, Senthilselvan et al., 1992), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) (Chakraborty et al., 2009, Hoppin et al., 2007, Tual et al., 2013, Valcin et al., 2007), lung cancer (Alavanja et al., 2004, Beane Freeman et al., 2005, Bonner et al., 2005, Hou et al., 2006, Lee et al., 2004, Pesatori et al., 1994, Purdue et al., 2007, Rusiecki et al., 2006, Samanic et al., 2006), and impaired lung function (Chakraborty et al., 2009, Hernandez et al., 2008, Mekonnen and Agonafir, 2004, Peiris-John et al., 2005, Reynolds et al., 2012, Royce et al., 1993, Salameh et al., 2005, Zuskin et al., 2008). However, given that low-dose environmental pesticide exposures are more prevalent than higher-dose occupational exposures (Damalas and Eleftherohorinos, 2011), it would be more important to understand how environmental pesticide exposures impact respiratory health in the general populations.
In this review article, we critically reviewed evidence available to date examining the associations between environmental pesticide exposures and respiratory health, including lung function, respiratory symptoms and diseases, in the general populations. This article also highlights questions arising from the literature, including our recent analysis using the data from the Canadian Health Measures Survey (CHMS), for further research. To review the literature, we searched English-language studies, reports and abstracts between 1980 and May 2016 in MEDLINE® using key words (including synonyms, adjective and plural forms) and combinations of key words, including occupation, non-occupation, environment, pesticide, insecticide, herbicide, respiratory, pulmonary, airway, lung function, infection, asthma, bronchitis, and COPD. Searching strategy also included cross-referencing of research and review papers. Studies of occupational and workplace-related pesticide exposures were excluded.
Section snippets
Pesticide exposures and respiratory health in general populations
While association between workplace-related pesticide exposures and respiratory diseases and symptoms are well documented (Ye et al., 2013), a summary of adverse health impact of environmental chemicals, including pesticides, indicates that pesticide exposures from environment or diet may as well cause respiratory diseases and symptoms in the general populations (Sanborn et al., 2002).
Findings from the CHMS
The CHMS is a nation-wide population-based survey conducted by Statistics Canada to characterize the baseline health information of Canadians. In addition to questionnaire data collection, “objective measures” such as results of spirometry tests and the biomonitoring concentrations of pesticides were also collected by the CHMS (Statistics Canada, 2011). In this section, we briefly discuss the published results of the effect of pesticides on lung function in the general population using the
Environmental pesticide exposures and respiratory health in general populations
While very few evidence have suggested the potential impact of environmental/non-occupational pesticide exposures on lung function in the general population (Newton and Breslin, 1983, Schneider et al., 2004), the studies using the CHMS Cycle 1 data demonstrated the associations between exposures to OP, PYR and organocholorine insecticide DDT/DDE and impaired lung function in the Canadian general population (Ye et al., 2015a, Ye et al., 2016a, Ye et al., 2016b). No significant associations were
Conclusions
While the associations between occupational pesticide exposures and respiratory health were well documented, there is limited availability of studies on pesticide exposures and respiratory health in the general population. This is an important gap in the literature given that low-dose environmental pesticide exposures are more prevalent than higher-dose occupational exposures. The studies of the CHMS data have provided new population-based evidence for the effect(s) of environmental pesticide
References (111)
- et al.
Biological monitoring of exposure to organophosphate pesticides
Toxicol. Lett.
(2002) - et al.
Persistent respiratory health effects after a metam sodium pesticide spill
Chest
(1994) - et al.
Persistent asthma after acute inhalation of organophosphate insecticide
Lancet
(1994) - et al.
The lymphocytic cholinergic system and its contribution to the regulation of immune activity
Life Sci.
(2003) - et al.
Biomonitoring of dialkylphosphate metabolites (DAPs) in urine and hair samples of sprayers and rural residents of Crete, Greece
Environ. Res.
(2014) Clinical evaluation of pesticide exposure and poisonings
Lancet
(1997)- et al.
The effect of pesticide spraying on the rate and severity of ED asthma
Am. J. Emerg. Med.
(2005) - et al.
Low-level exposure to organophosphate pesticides leads to restrictive lung dysfunction
Respir. Med.
(2005) - et al.
A reassessment of the neurotoxicity of pyrethroid insecticides
Pharmacol. Ther.
(2006) - et al.
Occupational asthma in a pesticides manufacturing worker
Chest
(1993)
Pyrethroid exposure of the general population—is this due to diet
Toxicol. Lett.
Pulmonary function is a long-term predictor of mortality in the general population: 29-year follow-up of the Buffalo Health Study
Chest
Lung function and chronic exposure to air pollution: a cross-sectional analysis of NHANES II
Environ. Res.
Risk assessment for children exposed to DDT residues in various milk types from the Greek market
Food Chem. Toxicol.
Agricultural exposures and chronic bronchitis: findings from the AGRICAN (AGRIculture and CANcer) cohort
Ann. Epidemiol.
Pesticides and lung cancer risk in the agricultural health study cohort
Am. J. Epidemiol.
Biomonitoring of exposure in farmworker studies
Environ. Health Perspect.
Cancer incidence among male pesticide applicators in the agricultural health study cohort exposed to diazinon
Am. J. Epidemiol.
Health impacts of pesticide exposure in a cohort of outdoor workers
Environ. Health Perspect.
Occupational exposure to carbofuran and the incidence of cancer in the agricultural health study
Environ. Health Perspect.
Review of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) biomonitoring and epidemiology
Crit. Rev. Toxicol.
Chronic exposures to cholinesterase-inhibiting pesticides adversely affect respiratory health of agricultural workers in India
J. Occup. Health
Organophosphorus pesticide exposure of urban and suburban preschool children with organic and conventional diets
Environ. Health Perspect.
Urinary and hand wipe pesticide levels among farmers and nonfarmers in Iowa
J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol.
Acute infections and environmental exposure to organochlorines in Inuit infants from Nunavik
Environ. Health Perspect.
Pesticide exposure, safety issues, and risk assessment indicators
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health
Family pesticide use in the home, garden, orchard, and yard
Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals: associated disorders and mechanisms of action
J. Environ. Public Health
Pesticide use on agricultural fields and health problems in various activities
East Afr. Med. J.
The Pine River statement: human health consequences of DDT use
Environ. Health Perspect.
Monitoring of Pesticide Residues in Products of Plant Origin in the European Union, Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein, 2005. Commision staff working document
Adverse respiratory health and hematological alterations among agricultural workers occupationally exposed to organophosphate pesticides: a cross-sectional study in North India
PLoS One
Pesticides and respiratory symptoms among farmers
Rev. Saude Publica
Pesticide exposure and respiratory health of indigenous women in Costa Rica
Am. J. Epidemiol.
Muscarinic receptors and control of airway smooth muscle
Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.
Mechanism of action of organophosphorus and carbamate insecticides
Environ. Health Perspect.
Fate of pesticides in the environment and its bioremediation
Eng. Life Sci.
Auxin herbicides: current status of mechanism and mode of action
Pest Manag. Sci.
Second Report on Human Biomonitoring of Environmental Chemicals in Canada—Results of the Canadian Health Measures Survey Cycle 2 (2009–2011)
Occupational Disorders of the Lung: Recognition, Management, and Prevention
Low level of exposure to pesticides leads to lung dysfunction in occupationally exposed subjects
Inhal. Toxicol.
Pesticides and asthma
Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol.
Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) impurities in pesticides: a neglected source of contemporary relevance
Environ. Sci. Technol.
Chemical predictors of wheeze among farmer pesticide applicators in the Agricultural Health Study
Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.
Pesticides and adult respiratory outcomes in the agricultural health study
Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci.
Pesticide use and chronic bronchitis among farmers in the Agricultural Health Study
Am. J. Ind. Med.
Pesticides and atopic and nonatopic asthma among farm women in the Agricultural Health Study
Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.
Pesticide use and adult-onset asthma among male farmers in the Agricultural Health Study
Eur. Respir. J.
Pendimethalin exposure and cancer incidence among pesticide applicators
Epidemiology
Biomonitoring and biomarkers of organophosphate pesticides exposure — state of the art
Ann. Agric. Environ. Med.
Cited by (73)
Multi-omics and gut microbiome: Unveiling the pathogenic mechanisms of early-life pesticide exposure
2024, Pesticide Biochemistry and PhysiologyPesticide exposure and human health: Toxic legacy
2023, ClinicsBatch adsorption of herbicides from aqueous solution onto diverse reusable materials and granulated activated carbon
2022, Journal of Environmental ManagementGlyphosate differentially affects the allergic immune response across generations in mice
2022, Science of the Total Environment